Divination, Astrology, and Magic in Ancient China and Japan

by Joshua Badgley

This article was originally written in 2009 as an attempt to better understand divination and astrology in ancient Japan. It grew into something talking about Yin-yang theory and geomantic concepts more generally. I’ve included it here, and may update it at some point in the future.

Early Chinese Divination

Divination shows up in the earliest historical records we have of China.  In fact, the earliest examples of the Chinese script are written on the backs of tortoise shells, dating back to the Shang period of Chinese history.

Most of what we know of the Shang Period comes from archaeological evidence unearthed, and legends of later periods.  

Shang divinations appear to have been mostly the purview of the king.  In fact, this role as religious intercessor with the gods seems to have been one of the primary duties of the king, investing within his person the ability to interpret divine will.  Early divination appears to have been done with turtle shells and deer scapulae.

According to David N. Keightly, a series of shells (3 or 5) would be laid out on a packed-earth altar.  A question would be asked and then a red-hot poker would be thrust into one side of a shell.  A second, negative question might then be asked and thrust into the other side of the shell. The cracks that formed would then be read.   This would be repeated on all of the shells, for verification.  Several divinations might be performed in this way, to determine an exact cause.

An example of such a divination may be to determine the cause of a particular illness.  Keightly gives the example of a toothache: five shells would be set out and then the question stated: “Father Yi is the cause of the toothache.”  The hot poker would then be thrust into the first shell.  Then, “Father Yi is not the cause of the toothache,” and the hot poker would be thrust into the other side.  This would be continued on four more shells, and a determination made.

Then, another set of divinations might be made: “Father Zhang is the cause of the toothache.”  “Father Zhang is not the cause of the toothache.”  Father Yi and Father Zhang may have been the ancestors of particular families, who would be watching the divination to see the outcomes.  If Father Yi was found to be the cause, then it would mean he was angry, possibly because of a living son who could be found responsible and would have to appease the departed spirit.

Yin-Yang Theory and the Yi-Jing (I-Ching)

It may be impossible to say when the concept of yin and yang was first postulated by early philosophers, but it has been a key part of Asian religion and philosophy for thousands of years.  This concept of duality influenced most Chinese thought even into the modern days.

The concepts of yin and yang are both simple and complex.  It is more than just black and white.  Yin is the yielding, the moon, the subtle, the feminine.  Yang is the firm, the sun,  the overpowering, the masculine.  Yin-yang theory embodies everything with differing quantities of these two forces, and together they balance each other.

Legendary emperor Fu Xi is credited with the creation of the first trigrams.  While it is hard to say if they were originally associated with the yin-yang theory, the two have been intertwined for ages.  The trigrams consist of three lines, or ‘yao'.  These yao may be broken or solid—a solid yao, according to tradition, represents yang, while the broken yao represents yin.  Three yao represent a ‘gua'.  There are eight gua in the basic progression.

The Zhou-Yi (Chou-I  周易), “Divination of Zhou”, built on the eight gua of Fu Xi and combined them together to form a total of 64 gua of 6 yao each.  This compilation is attributed to King Wen of Zhou, during his imprisonment by the last of the Shang emperors, Zhou Xin.  King Wen's comments were further illuminated by the Duke of Zhou, regent after the death of King Wu.  The Duke of Zhou added the various yao, or comments for the lines.

Later, further commentaries were added, attributed to Confucius, and the entire work was termed the “Yi Jing” (易經).  This is the version that has come down to us in the modern day.

A more probable history is that the Zhou-Yi was developed from two separate sources.  The trigrams were in use for divination purposes since the Shang dynasty.  There are examples on bronzes and tortoise shell divination remnants of six numbers corresponding to the individual yao of the hexagrams.  For a long time, these were believed to have been special clan or personal insignia.

Besides the development of the gua, there also appears to have been a concentrated attempt to collect folk and country wisdom and sayings, and these became the descriptions of the yao.  Reading the yao of any given gua, one begins to notice thematic elements.  Either ditties, or similarities between the yao.  Some historians believe that these were folk wisdoms such as astrological observations ('Submerged Dragon' could be a reference to the 'Dragon' constellation when it is entirely below the horizon), general omens ('A feeling in the big toe', rather like the feeling some farmers workers get when the weather is about to change), folksongs, etc.  However, because of the structure of the Zhou-yi, where they were eventually used, there were limitations in how the collections came down to us.

First, there could only be 64 collections.  Second, there had to be enough material in each one for 6 lines.  Where there wasn't enough for 6 lines, we find lines that don't seem to follow the flow of the rest of the yao in the gua.

All this does appear to have come together by the time of the Zhou dynasty.  It is also from these Confucian commentaries that we get the tradition of the 'classical' yarrow stalk divination using the Yi-Jing.

We know that yarrow stalks were used for divination with the Yi-Jing, and probably with other guides as well.  Besides the Zhou-Yi, we also find reference to books like “Lian Shan Yi” and “Gui Cang Yi”, which seems to indicate different traditions of divining.  I'm only aware of the Yi-Jing having survived to modern days, however.

Confucius is said to have written (from The Great Treatise, as recorded by Alfred Huang)

The number of the Great Expansion is fifty,
Of which forty-nine are used.
Divide them into two, symbolizing the two primary forces.
Suspend one, symbolizing the three supreme powers
Manipulate by four, symbolizing the four seasons.
Return the remainder, symbolizing the intercalary month.
In five years there is another intercalation.
Afterward the process is repeated.
Therefore four operations produce a change,
And eighteen changes yield a gua.

This description translates to the following method of throwing the yarrow:

1. The number of the Great Expansion is fifty.
   Take 50 yarrow sticks in a bundle.

2. Of which forty-nine are used.
   Take one out and lay it in front of you.  This one is not used.

3. Divide them into two, symbolizing the two primary forces.
   Make two bundles, one in each hand.  Don't count them—just take two bundles (this introduces the random chance, whereby the divination is affected).  This represents the two forces, yin and yang.

4. Suspend one, symbolizing the three supreme powers.
   Take one from the right hand bundle and hold it (suspend it) with the ring finger of the left hand.  This represents the three supreme powers—Heaven, Earth, and humanity.

5. Manipulate by four, symbolizing the four seasons.
   Take the stalks from the bundle in your left hand 4 at a time and lay them aside in a large bundle (you will be using this again).  You should stop when there are only four or less left.

6. Return the remainder, symbolizing the intercalary month.
   Put the remaining stalks between the middle and index finger of your left hand.  You should have 5 or fewer stalks in your left hand at this point.

7. In five years there is another intercalation.
   Repeat process 5 with the stalks in the right hand.  Collect the remainder in your left hand—it should be 5 or 9.  Lay this down in front of you in a single bundle.

8. Afterword the process is repeated.
   Take up the stalks you earlier put aside and make a bundle.  Divide it into two, as before, and continue the process with steps 5-7.  This time you should end up with either 4 or 8 stalks left.  Repeat again.

9. Therefore four operations produce a change,
   Operations 4-7 are used to create a change.  Three changes create a line, or yao.  When you repeat the process three times (that is, three manipulations of the yarrow stalks) you will end up with either 24, 28, 32, or 36 yarrow stalks left.  Place these down, four at a time, and count how many bundles of four you lay down.  This is the number of the change, or 'yao'.  It will be either a 6, 7, 8, or 9.  Six or eight (even numbers) are yin and represented by a broken line.  Seven and nine (odd numbers) are yang and represented by a solid line.  The extremes, 6 and 9, are the Greater Yin and Greater Yang, respectively, and indicate 'moving' lines (more on that later).

10. And eighteen changes yield a gua.
    Eighteen changes yields a gua.  Three changes yield a yao, and six yao make up a gua.

Yarrow stalks were used for a long time, but have not been the sole medium to consult the Yi-Jing throughout the centuries.  Another popular method uses coins, and it was developed during the Tang dynasty,  and is recorded in Correct Significance of Rites, although it really become extremely popular during the Southern Sung dynasty.

The three-coin oracle consists of throwing three coins.  The easiest way to remember is to give each head a value of 3 and each tail a value of two.  Throwing three coins, and adding up the total, you will get one yao (either 6, 7, 8, or 9).  Do this six times to get your full gua.

Besides divination, the Yi-Jing was studied for what it was believed to be able to describe about the nature of yin and yang, and was considered a standard text to be read and understood by later philosophers and religionists who would use its concepts to further define their own systems.

Zodiac

It appears that the twelve animals of the zodiac originally came from Greek sources.  Many Greek astrological and astronomical concepts were brought with Alexander the Great to India when he was expanding his empire.  Greeks remained in India, and their influence on the culture can still be seen in things like the zodiac, which was probably brought to China through the vehicle of Buddhism.

We know that ideas traveled from the Mediterranean all the way to Korea, at least.  There, we can find Ovid's tale of King Midas, albeit changed to fit the culture.

Regardless, the twelve zodiac positions most likely came from the twelve months—usually a given solar year has twelve moons (although every five years or so there is an extra moon).  The Chinese developed the zodiac into the twelve animals:

Readers of Chinese and Japanese will recognize fairly quickly that the character of the sign does not match the usual character for the animal in question.  In fact, it appears that the 'animals' are actually a later addition, although the association of animals with the zodiac signs does appear to have been fairly early.

Along with the zodiac (the 12 branches) there was another system of 10 stems.  According to tradition, there were once twelve Heavenly brothers and 10 Earthly brothers.  The 12 Heavenly brothers each took charge of one of the 10 Heavenly stems, while the 2 of them, along with the 10 Heavenly brothers, took charge of the 12 earthly branches.  The 10 Heavenly stems were associated with the 5 elements—there was an older (E) and younger (To) brother for each element.  So you get:

Together, the stems and the branches were used to create a cycle of 60 that was used to count the days and years.  The branches alone were used to number the hours of the day (each hour being 2 hours on the modern clock).  

The entire sexagesimal cycle looks like：

Daoism

‘Daoism' is an interesting collection of Chinese native beliefs.  Of all of the philosophies that arose in China, it integrated itself the most into the culture of magic and divination.  Especially in the Han dynasty, when there was an attempt to reconcile all of the various beliefs into a single, consolidated view of Heaven and Earth.

Daoism claims ties back to the first emperors.  Fu Xi (Fu Shi) is credited with inventing the Chinese characters by following the Tao, according to Taoist tradition; this is the same Fu Xi that is credited with creating the first trigrams.  Although it is hard to attribute the concepts of Daoism to a single source before the ‘Lao Zi' (later ‘Tao Te' Ching'), most of the concepts were probably around prior to that.

The founding document of Daoism is often quoted as the ‘Dao De Jing', attributed to Lao Zi (Lao Zi), who is said to have lived between 700 and 500 BCE, during the Spring and Autumn Period of Chinese history.  One source gives his dates as 604-531 BCE, but any dates are skeptical as there is debate as to whether or not he was even an actual person.

An alternate theory holds that the ‘Dao De Jing'--originally just called ‘Lao Zi' after its supposed author--was not the creation of a single person, but rather a collection of proverbs that were originally circulated as oral tradition and finally written down in the 4th or 4rd Century BCE.  Tradition holds that it was titled the ‘Dao De Jing', or ‘Classic of the Way and its Power', during the Tang dynasty.

One text of the the ‘Dao De Jing' was found in a tomb in Mawangtui sealed in 168 BCE.  Another, from the same period, was recovered from a tomb opened in 574 CE and republished by court astrologer Fu Yi.

The “Dao De Jing” is really what spawned the Taoist movement.  As it evolved, it took many forms, including Talisman Daoism, Ceremonial Daoism, Meditative Daoism, Alchemy Daoism, and Magic Daoism.  Its focus on not restricting the natural Way of Heaven and Earth with man-made ritual provided an alternative to Confucianism with its rigid adherence to human tradition.  Daoism focuses on the individual, and becoming one with the Tao.

Daoism is often couched in the words of esoteric mysticism.  The opening lines of the “Dao De Jing” are actually ‘Tao ke Tao feichang Tao,' often translated as ‘the Tao that can be told is not the true Tao,' but with more meaning that can't be encapsulated so easily.

After the “Dao De Jing”, the next most influential Taoist thinker was probably Zhuang Zi (Zhuang Zi, 399-295 BCE).  Living and writing during the Warring States Period of Chinese history, Zhuang Zi expressed the Tao through humorous parables and fables.  The “Zhuang Zi” is the origin of many stories that make their way throughout Asian cultures and will often be known even today.

One of the most famous pieces of mythology that Daoism contributed to the mix of Chinese myth and religion was the concept of the Taoist immortals.  By giving themselves entirely to the Way of Heaven, it was believed that Taoist masters would be able to live forever.  The search for immortality led to the belief in an elixir of life, the recipe to which enlightened immortals were believed to have found.

One story of such an elixir regards “”.  It is said that this Taoist master finally came upon the recipe for the elixir of life, and invited all of his disciples to a cave up on the mountainside.  They mixed the longed-for elixir, and the Master partook.  He quickly fell down, and appeared dead.  All but his most loyal disciple fled, believing their Master to have been wrong.  This last disciple followed his master and drank up, and also fell down.  However, the story claims, the elixir worked, and they were both soon alive again, and now they wander the world as two Immortals. 

How many similar incidents may have occurred without the miraculous resurrection we will probably never know.  Nonetheless, many Taoists practiced alchemy with a passion in an attempt to find this illusive elixir.  Ironically, the search for life may have led to the discovery of the explosive mixture which would become gunpowder.

Confucianism

Confucius, or Kong Fu Zi, is believed to have lived from ca. 551 to ca. 479 BCE.  He served many different rulers during the Warring States period, and appears to have gathered a following of disciples to his ideas.  According to the writings attributed to him, Kong Zi believed that the welfare of a state and its people was derived directly from the virtue of its ruler.  Each man and woman should strive to perform their job with proper ritual and virtue.

Among the works attributed to Kong Zi, “The Classic of Filial Piety” describes the relationship between men—between ruler and subject, father and son, husband and wife, elder to younger, and between friends.  

Confucianism also focused on the virtues of merit.  He taught that men should be promoted according to their worth.  To that end, future generations promoted the concept of a meritocracy, and the civil service entrance exams were drawn up, until they became the primary means of getting a government job.

The entrance exams focused on the “Five Classics” of Confucianism.  These include:

• The Book of Changes (Yi-Jing) – Including the “10 Wings”, or commentaries, supposedly written by Confucius, this formed the basis of Confucian cosmology.

• The Book of History (Shu Jing) – A collection of documents from the Xia to the Zhou dynasties.  Confucius is said to have edited and written parts of the book, and it was taken as solid fact throughout much of China's history, although modern historians believe that it was probably compiled around the middle or late Zhou period, and so not much use for earlier dynasties.

• The Book of Odes  (Shi Jing) – Also known as “The Book of Songs”, this is a collection of songs and poetry.  It is said Confucius edited it down from 3000 to just 300 poems.  In “The Analects”, Confucius talks profusely about the need for people to read the Odes.  It was believed that students of the poems could find in them hints of virtue and proper culture.

• The Book of Rites (Li Zhi) – A collection of books on proper rituals, philosophy, and even table manners.  These rituals made up much of Chinese life.

• The Summer and Autumn Annals (Chun Chiu) – A history of the state of Lu from 700 to 500 BCE.  During the Warring States period, “Summer and Autumn Annals” was the general name for any history text, it would seem.

Prospective students would have to go through grueling examinations to enter into civil service, and usually only the well to-do could afford to give their sons the proper education required.  There were many attempts at cheating, but the government took great measures to prevent it

Mohism

Mohism was another philosophy named for its founder, Mo Zi (Mo Tzu, ca. 470-400 BCE).  Originally born ‘Mo Ti', the ‘Mo Zi' is not only his title (Master Mo), but the title of the book of his writings, where he talks about concepts of Humanism, Universal Love, Promotion of the Talented, etc.  Although not as well known as Daoism, Confucianism, or Legalism, Mohism did make a significant contribution to the philosophical stage of ancient China.

Among its teachings, Mohism focused on Humanism--that man should attempt to procure benefits for the whole world and eliminate the calamities.  The major calamities are: Warfare, usurpation, personal violence; and lack of grace and loyalty in rule and subject, lack of affection and filial piety between father and son, and lack of harmony between elder and younger brothers.  These calamities, Mo Zi stated, arise from the want of universal love--and that universal love is an attainable goal. 

Mo Zi goes on the say that rulers must promote the talented to bring order, wealth, and abundance to the land.  They must also refrain from offensive war--such an act is considered by Mo Zi to be nothing more than mass murder, and the state is bound by the same morality as the individual.  Furthermore, the consequences matter as well as the intention--it is not enough to have good intentions.  Also, the future can be known to a degree--a good horse and strong cart will travel faster than a bad horse and a square-wheeled cart. 

Perhaps most important, however, were Mo Zi's thoughts on the matter of philosophy itself.  He advocated reading and listening to a variety of ideas, and to sift through them with judgment to arrive at the truth.  He also set down the standards for examining a doctrine, which must pass the three tests:

1. BASIS:  It should be based on the deeds of the wise rulers of the past.

2. VERIFIABILITY:  It should be verifiable by the senses of the common man.

3. APPLICABILITY:  It should be applied in government and daily life and then judged by observing the benefits to the state and the people.

Mo Zi today is perhaps best known for the way he spoke of philosophy, rather than his philosophy itself.  Is demand for a standard of proof, rather than just wise sayings, influenced later philosophers and scholars.  A school of philosophy of language was developed ('Later Mohists') which influenced the mature form of Daoism and Confucianism through the writings of Zhuang Zi (Chuang Tzu) and Xun Zi (Hsun Tzu).

This latter influence is ironic considering that Mo Zi railed against Confucianism.  He saw them as uptight, pretentious, arrogant, and overly devoted to tradition and ritual beyond common sense.  Two examples of Confucianism as Mo Zi saw it:

--Consider an ancient tribe that kills and eats their first born sons; such behavior, though traditional, is hardly either moral or benevolent.

--According to Confucian belief, a filial son would leave his family to go fight for his ruler against another country.  However, Mo Zi claims that a truly filial son would not leave his family in the hands of a ruler who showed only 'partial' concern (i.e. concern for for his people, but not for those against whom he made war), and so Confucianism is inconsistent.

These attacks forced Confucians to defend their beliefs, which caused them to use Mohist theories of analysis to compare their own values to Mohist values.  Although Confucianism remained the dominant philosophy, it absorbed the Mohist analytical tools and techniques, which show up in later Confucian treatises.

Legalism

Legalism is one of the harshest philosophies to ever gain power in China, and has since then tainted its parent philosophy, Confucianism.  Legalism states that the basic nature of man is evil, and that he is only made good through strict application of state law.

Han Fei Zi learned Confucianism from Xun Zi (fl. 298-238 BCE).  Xun Zi is considered the third great Confucian scholar, and believed that all humans were born predisposed to greed, lust, anger, etc.  It was through education and culture that man was reformed, and could become virtuous.

Han Fei took this one step further, believing that it was up to the state to ensure that people acted correctly.  However, since even the state was run by people, those people had to be subject to the laws—up to the Emperor himself.  Legalists believed that by crafting a perfect set of laws, the wickedness of man could be controlled.

Legalism may have been just an obscure footnote in history, but it was adopted as the political theory of the Qin dynasty, who gathered power and put an end to the Warring States period.  The legalistic Qin dynasty (221-207 BCE) lasted for only two generations.  Qin Shi Huang Di  unified the country and then instituted a rigid legalist totalitarianism.  His successor, Qin Xiangyu, was overthrown by Liu Bang, who established the Han dynasty (206 BCE- 24 CE).  This saw an end to legalism as the state sanctioned religion, but hardly the end of its influence.

In the short time it had been in effect during the Warring States Period and the Qin dynasty, legalism had a dramatic effect on the state of philosophy.  For one thing, legalism declared that the various teachings and philosophies only confused the people and made them doubt the laws of the state.  Therefore, many works of Taoism, Mohism, and even Confucianism were destroyed.  Scholars caught teaching contrary philosophies could actually be put to death.

One story told about the legalists discusses the case of two officials.  One was in charge of the emperor's cloak, and the other was in charge of the emperor's umbrella.  One day, the emperor was out with his attendants and fell asleep.  The sun was shining up above, and he was bound to get burned, but the officer in charge of the umbrella had also succumbed to the peaceful nature of the day.  So the officer of the cloak moved the umbrella so as to keep the Emperor from being burned.

When the Emperor awoke, and it was revealed what had been done, he had both men executed.  The one for falling asleep and neglecting his duty, and the other for going beyond his duties and taking over the job of another official.

Han Synthesis

When the Han received the Mandate of Heaven and replaced the Qin, they also threw out the Legalists, and a scholarly revolution occurred.  In reaction to the strict legalist theories that claimed only one Way, Han scholars accepted all schools of thought as equally valid.  Using the Yi-Jing and the writings of previous sages, Han scholars worked at putting together a single, cohesive view of the universe, known as the 'Han Synthesis'.

This took some interesting pseudo-mathematical juggling, as the dualistic system of yin-yang was blended with a 5 element system, a 12 zodiac system, etc. 

Elemental Theory

'Wu Xing' (or 'Gogyou', in Japanese) is the shorthand description of the five elements theory.  While there may have been different numbers and orders for different theories, this eventually came to mean the five elements known today: Fire->Earth->Metal->Water->Wood.  The elemental theory held that everything in the world was composed of these elements in different quantities, and that interactions between the elements would affect the greater world around them.  Ideally, like yin and yang, these elements are brought into harmony—as appropriate for a given situation.

There are three different orders for the elements.  There is the creative and destructive cycles, but then there is also the weakening cycle.  The creative and destructive cycles are opposites—Fire creates Earth which destroys Fire, etc.

五行：

火　Fire creates 土　Earth and controls 金　Metal

土　Earth creates 金　Metal and controls 水　Water

金　Metal creates 水　Water and controls 木　Wood

水　Water creates 木　Wood and controls 火　Fire

木　Wood creates 火　Fire and controls 土　Earth

When arrayed out in a chart, together, they form a circle and a five pointed star.  This pentagram is a symbol, then, of the five elements.

During the Han synthesis, this particular series was derived from writings regarding yin-yang theory and commentaries on the Yi-Jing.  The elements were used as symbols of different 'flavors' of chi, or energy, depending on the amount of yin and yang present.  It was believed that everything could be defined by these five elements—from physical things, like rocks and trees, to less concrete things such as emotion and the relationships between people.  Each element had different attributes—color, taste, emotion, direction, season, and heavenly bodies.  For example:

These elements were believed to influence everything.  Metal controls wood, so Venus controls Jupiter, etc.  Furthermore, any problems were caused by imbalances, and so should be countered with the appropriate elements to bring it all back into harmony.   

Calendar Making

One of the important duties of the government in early China was the development and distribution of a calendar.  This was both important for divination—since different days, months, or years might be auspicious or inauspicious—and also for general use such as farming.  Since the Chinese generally used a lunar calendar, solar events did not appear on the same day every year, and they had to be calculated to determine what day it would fall on.  Furthermore, every so often (about once every 5 years) there would be a 'leap year' with an extra month.  When that month fell, and how that changed the calendar for the following year, was an important calculation.

The importance of the calendar goes back to the earliest legends of Chinese history.  In the “Canon of Yao”, which is named for its subject, the Sage-King Yao, it is noted that the year is 366 days.  Furthermore, some of the first commissions are given to the brothers He and the brothers Xi to compose the calendar, indicating the importance that this held in early China.

The 24 Solar Phases

These represent the 24 solar phases (節氣, JIECHI [China] or SETSUKI [Japan]) into which the year is divided.  As such, they generally fall on the same day according to the Gregorian calendar, but on different days on the new calendar.  Besides being used to calculate other solar events, they could also be used to determine when an intercalary month would be required to bring the calendar back on track.

Below, the chart shows the month (with the name used in Japan) and the solar phase (Chinese and Japanese name given).

Japanese Bureau of Divination: Onmyo-Ryo

Yin-Yang divination in Japan appears to have come to Japan through Korea.  It grew between the 6th and 7th Centuries CE. 

The “Catalog of (Chinese) Books Existent in Japan” (日本國見在書目録, , Nihonkoku-genzai-shomokuroku) composed during the Kampyō (889-897) by Fujiwara no Sukeyo contains a sizable list of books under the heading of “Five Elements”.  Some of these works are actually contradictory in nature.  It was for this reason that earlier, during the first year of the Tempyō-hoji era on the 11th month, Empress Kōken decided it was necessary for those who practiced Yin-Yang divination and similar arts to catalog those works considered to be orthodox.  They decided on four books:

1. Shūeki (周易　Zhou-Yi or “Zhou Book of Divination”) aka Eki-kyō (易經 , Yi-Jing or “Book of Changes”).  See the section above on the Yi-Jing for more information.

2. Shinsen-onmyō-sho (新撰陰陽書　 Xinxuan-yin'yang-shu or “New book of Yin and Yang”).  This work is in 50 scrolls is attributed to Ryosai (呂才 Lu Cai) (600-665 CE), according to Nihonkoku-genzai-shomokuroku, but there is another work with the same name attributed to King Can (王燦) of the Later Han (25-220 CE), leaving some doubt as to the exact author.

3. Ōdai-kongi (黄帝金櫃 Huang-di Jingui or “The Gold Chest of the Yellow Emperor”). This title is typical of the vocabulary of Chinese esoteric mysticism.  There are several different candidates for this particular work listed in the Nihonkoku-genzai-shomokuroku.

4. Gogyō-taigi (五行大義 Wu-Xing Dayi or “The Grand Significance of the Five Elements”).  As the title states, this work described the five element theory that was solidified during the Han Synthesis.

In addition, there were several works that were important to the formation of the Japanese concept of Yin-Yang divination, but were not considered part of the orthodox canon.  Among these were:

1. Hyakki-reki (百忌暦 Bai Ji Li or “Calendar of the hundred prohibitions”).  Another work attributed to Ryosai.  It deals with various taboos, including figures like the spirit 'Konjin' (金神), which aren't found in the orthodox works but still form a large part of the Japanese onmyō-dō beliefs.

2. Sukuyō-gyō (宿曜經  Xiu yao jing).  The full title of this work is actually Monjushiri-bosatsu gyū shosen shosetsu kikkyō-jinichi-zennaku-shukuyō-kyō (文殊師利菩薩及諸仙所説吉凶時日善悪宿曜經 or “Sutra of the favorable and unfavorable hours and days as well as the good or bad stars and celestial mansions preached by the Bodhisattva Manjusri and various saints.”  This was one of the main foundations of esoteric Buddhism in Japan (Mikkyō-bu  密教部).  It contained many of the Buddhist beliefs regarding astronomy, astrology, and the cosmology of the saints and spirits that dealt with the Heavens.  It appears to come from a Chinese translation made in 759 CE by 'Amoghavajra' (不空　'Bu Kong' in Chinese).

Kata-imi and Kata-tagae

The word 'kata-imi' (方忌) means 'prohibited direction'.  During the Heian period, under the influence of Onmyō-dō, it was believed that there both auspicious and inauspicious directions.  The inauspicious directions fell into one of three categories:

1. Directions that were permanently inauspicious for everyone.  An example in both China and Japan would be the Northeast, or Ushi-Tora (丑寅), which was called the 'Demon Gate' (鬼門 kimon or kueimen in Chinese).  In order to ward this direction in the Japanese capital, a Buddhist monastery was established on Mt. Hiei.

2. Directions that were permanently inauspicious for people in certain years of their life. These directions are associated with a particular year in a person's life, and only lasts during that year.  They are derived from the 8 trigrams of the Yi-Jing.

3. Directions that were temporarily inauspicious for everyone.  These are the most common of the prohibited directions, usually caused by wandering divinities.

If one intended to travel in a forbidden direction, they should try to attract as little attention as possible.  The dress should be humble and subdued, so as to not attract the attention of any divinities which may be present in that direction.

Abe no Seimei, perhaps the most famous onmyōji, is reported by Kaempfer to have established a chart of days ill-suited for travel for each month, as follows:

Seimei is also supposed to have composed the following verse, in the form of a tanka (5-7-5/7-7).  It is primarily for the use of the servants, who must set out regardless of the auspicious or inauspicious nature of the day:

Sadame eshi tabi tatsu hi tori yoshi ashi wa

omoi tatsu hi o kichi nichi to sen.

That is supposed to be useful if the entire day is poor for traveling.  However, if it is simply a direction that is blocked, 'kata-tagae' could be used.  In this case, the traveler avoids the inauspicious direction by adding an intermediary destination that takes them in a different direction.

For example, let's say that the northwest is blocked.  A traveler could avoid misfortune by traveling first to a location in the north, and then travel west.  This was often used as a pretense for visiting shrines, friends, or lovers, and occurs frequently in Heian period literature.  It was most often used for overcoming temporary taboos on a given direction.

Yugyōjin

The Yugyōjin (遊行神), or ambulatory deities, are believed to have wandered in a predictable manner between the cardinal points.  When such a divinity was present in a given direction, there was a prohibition against that direction—a kata-imi.  These divinities are all related to astronomical phenomena, but they no longer follow any path that appears to relate to their original heavenly connection.  Rather, it would appear that their paths were fixed in accordance with the laws of yin and yang and the five elements as brought together during the Han dynasty.

These deities include Ten-ichi (天一 Tian-yi), Taihaku (太白 Taibai), Daishōgun (大将軍 Dajiangjun), Konjin (金神 Jinshen), and Ōsō (王相 or 旺相 Wangxiang).

Ten-ichi (more appropriately 'Ten'ichijin' 天一神), aka Nagagami (中神), is a diety of the Pole Star.  It is said to come out of the Northeast—an inauspicious direction in both Chinese and Japanese Yin-Yang theory—on the 46th day of the sexigesimal cycle, tsuchinoto-tori (己酉 Earth-Fowl).  It then continues around the compass in a clockwise pattern.  It stays 6 days in the NE, then 5 days in the E, then 6 days in the SE, etc.  Once it finishes 5 days in the North, the deity returns to heaven until the next Earth-Fowl day, when it starts all over again.

Taihaku derives from the planet Venus.  According to the Five Element theory, Venus reigns as the White Emperor over the West and the Autumn season.  It is also related to the element 'Metal'.  Taihaku's cycle is more mobile, moving every day to a new position.  It's cycle is only 10 days long, with 3 cycles in one lunar month, starting in the East:

Daishōgun is another spirit of the planet Venus, but yet it follows a different path than Taihaku, above.  Its path is more complex, and although it travels throughout the four cardinal directions, it only creates a prohibition in any given direction depending on the year.  As such, there are two charts to consult.  First, what is the year, and second is what is the day?

First, according to the year, use the 12 Earthly Stems of the Zodiac.  If it is a...

...Tora, U, or Tatsu (Tiger, Rabbit, or Dragon) year, then Daishōgun has influence when in the North.
...Mi, Uma, or Hitsuji (Snake, Horse, or Sheep) year, then Daishōgun has influence when in the East.
...Saru, Tori, or Inu (Monkey, Fowl, or Dog) year, then Daishōgun has influence when in the South.
...I, Ne, or Ushi (Boar, Rat, or Ox) year, then Daishōgun has influence when in the West.

Daishōgun starts its journey on the first day of the 60 day cycle (Kinoe-Ne) in the East.  The spirit spends 5 days and then returns to Heaven.

On the 13th day, the spirit descends to reside for 5 days in the South before returning to Heaven.
On the 25th day, the spirit descends to the Center, spending 5 days before returning to Heaven.
On the 37th day, the spirit descends to the West, spending 5 days before returning to Heaven.
On the 49th day, the spirit descends to the West, spending 5 days before returning to heaven.

The spirit then begins its journey again on the 1st day of the next sexagesimal cycle.  The entire cycle should look like:

When the deity is in 'Heaven' its effects are not felt on Earth, but it is unclear what the effect of the deity is when it is on the Earth residing in the Center.

Konjin is the spirit of Metal.  As the spirit of metal, Konjin is also tied to Venus and the West.  Its cycle appears to be connected to the He Tu diagram, which is made up of 10 groupings of stars in 5 different directions.  By tradition this diagram was discovered by Fu Xi upon the back of a qilin (Japanese: kirin), and is said to have been his inspiration for his arrangement of the 8 trigrams.

All together, the diagram forms a link between the different groupings of dots, each of which has a different number.  The center is 5 and 10, while the groups around the outside are 1 and 6, 3 and 8, 2 and 7, and 4 and 9. Associated with the various directions it looks like:

In the case of Konjin, it remains in a given direction for an entire year.  That year's prohibited direction corresponds to that year's Heavenly Stem.  So, if the year's stem is...

...甲　Kinoe or 己　Tsuchinoto (1 and 6) then Konjin is in the 午　South, 未　SSW, 申　WSW, or 酉　West.
...乙　Kinoto or 庚　Kanoe (2 and 7) then Konjin is in the 辰　ESE or 巳　SSE.
...丙　Hinoe or 辛　Kanoto (3 and 8) then Konjin is in the 寅　ENE, 卯　East, 午　South, 未　SSW, 子　North, or 丑　NNE.
...丁　Hinoto or 壬　Mizunoe (4 and 9) then Konjin is in the 寅　ENE, 卯　East, 戌　WNW, or 亥　NNW.
...戊　Tsuchinoe or 癸　Mizunoto (5 and 10) then Konjin is in 申　WSW, 酉　West, 子　North, or 丑　NNE.

Ōsō (Sign of Brightness) is connected with the 24 solar phases.  It travels around the compass in a year, three months at a time.

In the Spring, for three months, the East is closed.

  - Begins with the first day of the 1st month, when the glare in the NE and its sign in the East.

  - The Spring Equinox begins the middle of the 2nd month, when the glare is in the East and its sign is in the SE.

In the Summer, for three months, the South is closed.

  -Begins with the first day of the 4th month, when the glare is in SE and its sign is in the South.

  -Summer Solstice begins the middle of the 5th month, when the glare is in the South and its sign is in the SW.

In the Autumn, for three months, the West is closed.

  -Begins with the first day of the 7th month, when the glare is in the SW and its sign is in the West.

  -The Autumnal Equinox begins the middle of the 8th month, when the glare is in the South and its sign is in the NW.

In the Winter, for three months, the North is closed.

  -Begins with the first day of the 10th month, when the glare is in the NW and its sign is in the North.

  -Winter Solstice begins the middle of the 11th month, when the glare is in the North and its sign is in the NE.

References

2005, February 12th; MICHAEL, Thomas, PhD.; “I-Ching”; Lecture--Smithsonian Residents Associate, Washington, D.C. .

2000; ed. MINFORD, John and LAU, Joseph S. M.; “An Anthology of Translations: Classical Chinese Literature: Volume I: From Antiquity to the Tang Dynasty”; The Chinese University Press, Hong Kong.

1998; HUANG, Alfred; “The Complete I Ching: The definitive translation from the Taoist Master Alfred Huang.”; Lake Book Manufacturing, U.S.

1995; tr. BOCK, Felicia G.; “Classical Learning and Taoist Practices in Early Japan: with a Translation of Books XVI and XX of the Engi-Shiki”; Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona.

1994; ed. MAIR, Victor H. et al; “The Columbia Anthology of Traditional Chinese Literature”; Columbia University Press, New York.

1969; NAKAYAMA, Shigeru; “A History of Japanese Astronomy: Chinese Background and Western Impact”; Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

1961; WERNER, E. T. C.; “A Dictionary of Chinese Mythology”; The Julian Press, Inc. Publishers, New York.

1958; FRANK, Bernard;“Kata-imi et Kata-tagae: Etude sur les Interdits de direction a l'epoque Heian”; Presses Universitaires de France, Paris.

1727, KAEMPFER, Engelbert; “Kaempfer's Japan”; tr. 1999, BODART-BAILEY, Beatrice M.; University of Hawai'i Press, Honolulu, Hawai'i.

Appendix: A

Below is an example of the various systems brought together.  Charts like this are common—the center represents 'Earth', and is surrounded by the various trigrams, which indicate various levels of yin and yang.  The zodiac symbols (the 10 Heavenly Stems and the 12 Earthly Branches) are arrayed around, as well as the 24 solar phases. Other systems may also be incorporated, such as the 28 phases of the moon.

This compass indicates where the various influences occur in both a temporal (the 12 hours and 24 solar phases) and spatial (the four cardinal directions).

Trigrams (First and Second Circle)

Arranged in the King Wen arrangement:

KAN / KAN
坎　Water

GEN / GON
艮　Mountain

ZHEN / SHIN
震　Thunder

XUN / SON
巽　Wood

LI / RI
離　Fire

KUN / KON
坤　Earth

DUI / DA
兌　Lake

QIAN / KEN
乾　Heaven

Zodiac (Third Circle)

24 Solar Phases (Fourth Circle)

10 Heavenly Stems and the Four Gates (Fifth Circle)

These symbols represent the 5 elements.  With the exception of 'Earth', each sibling is found with its other.  Together with the four gates (see below) these fill in 24 stations around the compass.

The four gates.  These are especially important in geomancy.  For example, NE is the Demon Gate, and is therefore a permanently unlucky direction.  It is this reason that the monastery on Mt. Hiei was built, NE of the Japanese capital Heian-kyo.